Traumatisme craniocérébral

Ligne directrice sur l’admissibilité (LDA)

Date de révision : 4 septembre 2025

Date de création : 31 mars 2025

Code CIM-11 : NA07

Code médical d'ACC : 85000 traumatisme craniocérébral, commotion cérébrale, syndrome post-commotionnel/traumatisme crânien fermé

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Définition

Aux fins de la présente ligne directrice sur l’admissibilité (LDA), deux affections sont connues sous les appellations ci-dessous :

  • Traumatisme craniocérébral léger
    • syndrome post-commotionnel
    • commotion cérébrale
    • lésion cérébrale légère.
  • Traumatisme craniocérébral modéré à sévère
    • traumatisme craniocérébral modéré
    • traumatisme craniocérébral sévère
    • lésion cérébrale modérée à sévère.

Remarque : L'admissibilité devrait être accordée uniquement pour une affection chronique. Aux fins des critères d’admissibilité d’Anciens Combattants Canada (ACC), un traumatisme craniocérébral (TCC) ou un diagnostic équivalent, est considéré comme chronique lorsque l’affection a été présente six mois ou plus longtemps.

Anatomie et physiologie

Un traumatisme craniocérébral (TCC)​ est une lésion du cerveau causée par une force extérieure, qui peut entraîner des troubles cognitifs, de mobilité ou émotionnels. Les TCC peuvent être légers, modérés ou sévères, en fonction de la gravité de la blessure. Ils peuvent également être ouverts (lorsque quelque chose perce le crâne) ou fermés (lorsqu’il n’y a pas de rupture du crâne). Les TCC sont un type de lésion cérébrale qu’une personne peut contracter, et non une lésion congénitale.

Le processus d’un TCC se déroule par étapes. La première étape, appelée lésion primaire, se produit au moment de l’impact. Il peut être attribuable à une fracture du crâne ou à un objet qui pénètre dans le crâne, ou encore à un déplacement violent du cerveau à l’intérieur du crâne. Au cours de cette phase, les vaisseaux sanguins peuvent se rompre et les neurones (cellules du cerveau) peuvent être déchirés ou endommagés. La deuxième étape, connue sous le nom de lésion secondaire, se produit après l’impact initial. Elle peut durer de quelques minutes à quelques jours, et comprend des processus qui peuvent endommager encore plus le cerveau, comme le gonflement du cerveau et l’augmentation de la pression à l’intérieur de la boîte crânienne.

Dans l’armée, les TCC sont de plus en plus fréquents, notamment en raison des accidents survenus lors des entraînements, des accidents de voiture et des activités sportives. Un plus petit nombre de TCC surviennent au combat, souvent causés par des explosions ou des objets qui pénètrent le crâne. Environ 80 % des TCC dans l’armée sont légers.

Le sexe joue un rôle important dans l’incidence des TCC. En général, les hommes sont plus susceptibles d’être victimes d’un TCC, notamment en raison de comportements à risque, et les cas sont souvent moins graves. Cependant, les femmes courent un plus grand risque de voir leur état se dégrader après un TCC. Elles sont plus susceptibles de signaler des symptômes comme la fatigue, les nausées et les problèmes de sommeil, et ont tendance à connaître des temps de récupération plus longs, peut-être en raison de différences hormonales. Les femmes peuvent également être plus vulnérables aux TCC en raison de différences physiques, comme des muscles du cou plus faibles, ce qui peut augmenter le risque de commotion cérébrale. En outre, des facteurs comme la violence entre partenaires intimes, les traumatismes sexuels subis dans l’armée et l’accès limité aux soins peuvent aggraver la situation des femmes.

Traumatisme craniocérébral léger

Dans la présente section

Norme diagnostique

Diagnostic

Un diagnostic d’un médecin qualifié ou d’une infirmière praticienne est nécessaire. Dans la mesure du possible, le diagnostic d’une invalidité chronique liée à un TCC léger comprend un examen neurologique détaillé, une imagerie cérébrale, une évaluation neurocognitive et d’autres évaluations pour clarifier l’étendue du TCC et des déficits associés.

Considérations relatives au diagnostic

Les TCC légers peuvent être difficiles à diagnostiquer parce qu’il n’y a pas de signes clairs sur les images du cerveau (neuro-imagerie), que la lésion peut ne pas se manifester immédiatement et que les symptômes peuvent mettre du temps à se manifester. Les prestataires de soins de santé s’appuient généralement sur la personne blessée ou un témoin pour signaler les symptômes immédiatement après la blessure. Les images du cerveau ne sont pas nécessaires pour diagnostiquer les TCC légers. Les images servent principalement à vérifier la présence de lésions graves, comme des hémorragies ou des lésions dans le cerveau, qui peuvent nécessiter une intervention chirurgicale ou d’autres traitements immédiats.

Dans certains cas, notamment au combat, les blessés ne sont pas évalués immédiatement après la blessure. Dans ces situations, les prestataires de soins de santé peuvent être amenés à s’appuyer sur les dires de la personne blessée ou des témoins pour diagnostiquer un TCC léger. La gravité de la blessure au départ ne permet pas toujours de prédire comment la personne se rétablira. Certaines personnes souffrant d’un TCC léger peuvent avoir des problèmes à long terme, même si leur blessure semblait légère au départ.

Critères de diagnostic

Le TCC léger peut être distingué du TCC modéré et du TCC sévère à l’aide de diverses définitions diagnostiques. Par conséquent, aux fins de l’admissibilité à ACC, le diagnostic de TCC léger sera accepté par le médecin qualifié ou l’infirmière praticienne traitant.

Les critères diagnostiques les plus couramment utilisés pour distinguer les traumatismes craniocérébraux légers, modérés et sévères sont présentés dans le tableau 1 ci-dessous.

Tableau 1Note de bas de page 1 ci-dessous détaille les critères d’évaluation de la gravité des traumatismes craniocérébraux légers, modérés et sévères, et énumère également les critères de diagnostic. Ces critères comprennent l’échelle de coma de Glasgow, l’imagerie structurelle, la perte de conscience, les modifications de l’état de conscience ou de l’état mental et l’amnésie post-traumatique.

Tableau 1 : Critères d’évaluation de la gravité des traumatismes craniocérébraux
Critères de diagnostic Léger Modéré Sévère
Échelle de coma de Glasgow 13 à 15 9 à 12 3 à 8
Imagerie structurelle NormaleFootnote * Normale ou anormale Normale ou anormale
Perte de conscience 0 à 30 minutes Plus longue que 30 minutes, moins longue que 24 heures Plus longue que 24 heures
Altération de la conscience/état mental Jusqu’à 24 heures Plus longue que 24 heures Plus longue que 24 heures
Amnésie post-traumatique 0 à 1 jour Plus longue que 1 jour, moins longue que 7 jours Plus longue que 7 jours

Remarques sur le tableau 1 :

  • Return to footnote * referrer La plupart des personnes souffrant d’un TCC léger auront des images cérébrales normales, ce qui signifie qu’il n’y a pas de lésions visibles. Les images cérébrales ne sont pas nécessaires pour diagnostiquer un TCC léger, mais si une image ou une IRM montre une lésion cérébrale, elles peuvent confirmer le diagnostic. Dans le passé, les TCC légers avec des lésions cérébrales visibles sur les images étaient appelés TCC légers « compliqués »

  • Si le patient répond aux critères de plusieurs catégories, le niveau de gravité le plus élevé est sélectionné.

L’American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine (Congrès américain de médecine de réadaptation) fournit également des critères diagnostiques acceptables pour les TCC légers.

Caractéristiques cliniques

Les caractéristiques cliniques d’un TCC léger peuvent varier considérablement en fonction de la gravité de la lésion et de la zone du cerveau touchée. Les TCC légers peuvent provoquer un vaste éventail de symptômes physiques, cognitifs, émotionnels et comportementaux. Certaines des caractéristiques cliniques les plus courantes associées aux TCC légers sont décrites ci-dessous.

Les symptômes physiques peuvent inclure, sans s’y limiter :

  • perte de conscience : brève ou profonde après la blessure
  • maux de tête : maux de tête persistants ou graves après un TCC
  • des nausées et des vomissements
  • vertiges et problèmes d’équilibre : difficultés d’équilibre et de coordination
  • problèmes sensoriels : changements dans la vision, l’audition, le goût ou l’odorat
  • fatigue et troubles du sommeil : se sentir fatigué et avoir des difficultés à dormir
  • faiblesse : perte de force dans certaines parties du corps
  • difficultés de coordination : troubles de la motricité fine ou globale
  • tremblements ou convulsions : des tremblements incontrôlés ou des convulsions peuvent survenir dans les cas graves.

Les symptômes cognitifs peuvent inclure, sans s’y limiter :

  • problèmes de mémoire : difficultés à se rappeler des événements ou à former de nouveaux souvenirs
  • problèmes d’attention et de concentration : difficulté à se concentrer ou à rester attentif aux tâches à accomplir
  • la confusion et la désorientation : se sentir étourdi ou avoir du mal à comprendre ce qui se passe autour de soi
  • ralentissement de la pensée : difficulté à traiter l’information et lentes réactions.

Les symptômes émotionnels et comportementaux peuvent inclure, sans s’y limiter :

  • sautes d’humeur : fluctuations des émotions, y compris l’irritabilité et la frustration
  • l’anxiété et la dépression : sentiments d’inquiétude, de peur ou de tristesse
  • agitation et nervosité
  • impulsivité : agir sans réfléchir, prendre des risques sans tenir compte des conséquences
  • problèmes sociaux et interpersonnels : difficultés dans les relations et les interactions sociales.

Remarque : Toutes les personnes souffrant d’un TCC léger ne présentent pas tous ces symptômes et la gravité et la durée des symptômes peuvent varier. Certains symptômes peuvent ne pas se manifester immédiatement après la blessure, mais se développer ou s’aggraver dans les heures et les jours qui suivent le traumatisme. Pour les besoins de l’ACC, les symptômes doivent être présents dans les six mois suivant la blessure initiale.

Le rétablissement après un TCC peut être très différent d’une personne à l’autre, selon la gravité de la blessure. La plupart des personnes souffrant d’un TCC léger se rétablissent dans les 7 à 10 jours, mais environ 10 à 20 % d’entre elles présentent encore des symptômes comme des maux de tête, des problèmes de vision, des nausées, de l’irritabilité et des troubles de la concentration. Si 80 à 85 % des personnes récupèrent complètement leurs capacités cognitives dans les 12 mois, environ 15 % continuent à présenter des symptômes après un an et 13,5 % ont des problèmes durables de mémoire ou cognitifs. Le rétablissement est généralement plus visible au cours des deux premières années, mais pour les TCC modérés à sévères, plus de 50 % des personnes sont confrontées à des difficultés à long terme en matière de réflexion ou d’activités quotidiennes.

Il existe deux types principaux de TCC légers : les traumatismes sans effet de souffle (ou contondantes) et les traumatismes avec effet de souffle. Les traumatismes contondants sont les plus courants et peuvent découler d’accidents, de chutes ou de chocs. Les traumatismes avec souffle sont plus fréquents dans l’armée et impliquent des ondes de choc provenant d’explosions, comme des bombes ou des engins explosifs improvisés (EEI).

Les femmes ont tendance à signaler plus de symptômes que les hommes après un TCC léger. Elles sont également plus susceptibles d’avoir des problèmes cognitifs ou de santé persistants. Les recherches montrent que les femmes en âge de procréer (entre la puberté et la ménopause) sont plus à risque d’un mauvais rétablissement, tandis que les femmes ménopausées ont tendance à mieux s’en sortir que les hommes du même âge. Les femmes souffrant d’un TCC léger signalent souvent plus de problèmes de santé mentale et de symptômes post-commotionnels. Les soldats qui travaillent dans l’infanterie et au combat, comme les ouvreurs de brèches et les tireurs d’élite, ont un risque plus élevé d’être victimes d’un TCC que ceux qui occupent des postes administratifs, et les TCC dus au combat sont liés à un risque plus élevé de symptômes durables.

Considérations liées à l’admissibilité

Dans la présente section

Section A : Causes et/ou aggravation

Aux fins des critères d’admissibilité d’ACC, les facteurs suivants sont acceptés pour causer ou aggraver les TCC légers, et peuvent être pris en considération avec les éléments de preuve pour aider à établir une relation avec le service. Les facteurs ont été déterminés sur la base d’un examen de la documentation scientifique et médicale actualisée, ainsi que des pratiques exemplaires médicales fondées sur des données probantes. Des facteurs autres que ceux énumérés peuvent être pris en considération, mais il est recommandé de consulter un consultant en prestation d’invalidité ou un conseiller médical.

Les périodes mentionnées ci-dessous le sont à titre indicatif. Dans chaque cas, la décision doit se prendre en fonction du bien-fondé de la demande et des éléments de preuve fournis.

Facteurs

  1. Expérience d’un événement spécifié au moment de l’apparition clinique ou de l’aggravation des symptômes d’un TCC léger.

    Les événements spécifiés incluent, sans s’y limiter:

    • la tête frappée par un objet
    • la tête heurtant un objet
    • le cerveau subit un mouvement d’accélération ou de décélération sans traumatisme externe direct à la tête, comme dans le cas d’un coup de fouet cervical
    • une explosion ou un souffle.
  2. Avoir subi des forces répétées de commotion cérébrale ou de sous-commotion répétées au moment de l’apparition clinique ou de l’aggravation des symptômes d’un TCC léger. Il peut s’agir, par exemple, d’ouvreurs de brèches forçant l’entrée d’une zone fermée ou de tireurs d’élite tirant de manière répétée avec des armes puissantes.
  3. Avoir subi un TCC léger consécutif, c’est-à-dire avoir subi un nouveau TCC léger avant le rétablissement entier d’un TCC antérieur au moment de l’apparition clinique ou de l’aggravation des symptômes d’un TCC léger.
  4. Être dans l’incapacité d’obtenir un traitement clinique approprié du TCC léger.

Section B : Affections dont il faut tenir compte dans la détermination de l’admissibilité/l’évaluation

La section B fournit une liste des affections diagnostiquées qu’ACC prend en considération dans la détermination de l’admissibilité et l’évaluation du TCC léger.

  • Maux de tête post-traumatiques
  • Migraines post-traumatiques
  • Vertiges non spécifiques

Remarque : Les symptômes physiques ou psychologiques d’un TCC léger, comme les changements d’humeur, l’anxiété, les troubles du sommeil, la fatigue, les troubles de la cognition et les maux de tête, font partie de l’admissibilité et de l’évaluation du TCC. Lorsque les symptômes évoluent vers une affection diagnostiquée distincte, une admissibilité consécutive peut être envisagée.

Section C : Affections courantes pouvant découler, en totalité ou en partie, du traumatisme craniocérébral léger et/ou de son traitement

La section C est une liste de conditions qui peuvent être causées ou aggravées par un TCC léger ou son traitement. Les affections énumérées à la section C ne sont pas comprises dans la détermination de l’admissibilité et l’évaluation du TCC léger. Une décision d’admissibilité en raison d’une affection consécutive peut être prise si le bien-fondé de la demande le justifie et si les éléments de preuve médicale montrent l’existence d’une relation consécutive.

Des conditions autres que celles énumérées à la section C peuvent être prises en considération; il est recommandé de consulter un consultant en prestations d’invalidité ou un conseiller médical.

  • Troubles du sommeil, y compris, mais sans s’y limiter :
    • trouble de l’insomnie
    • trouble de l’hypersomnolence
    • troubles respiratoires du sommeil
      • apnée obstructive du sommeil
      • apnée centrale du sommeil
      • apnée du sommeil mixte
  • Troubles psychiatriques cliniquement significatifs (avec preuve de l’apparition des symptômes dans les cinq ans suivant la blessure).

    Remarque : Aux fins des critères d’admissibilité d’ACC, « cliniquement significatif » signifie que le trouble demande un traitement et une gestion clinique continus.

Traumatisme craniocérébral modéré à sévère

Dans la présente section

Norme diagnostique

Diagnostic

Un diagnostic d’un médecin qualifié est nécessaire. Dans la mesure du possible, le diagnostic d’un handicap chronique lié à un TCC modéré ou sévère peut comprendre un examen neurologique détaillé, une imagerie cérébrale, une évaluation cognitive et d’autres évaluations pour clarifier l’étendue du TCC et des déficits connexes.

Considérations relatives au diagnostic

Les documents doivent être aussi complets que possible. Pour les besoins d’ACC, des résultats d’imagerie diagnostique en guise de confirmation sont requis pour l’admissibilité d’un TCC modéré ou sévère.

Critères de diagnostic

Les traumatismes craniocérébraux (TCC) modérées à sévères surviennent lorsque le cerveau est endommagé par des forces extérieures. Il s’illustre par au moins un des signes suivants :

  • perte de conscience pendant plus de 30 minutes
  • perte de mémoire pendant plus de 24 heures
  • lésions cérébrales visibles par imagerie cérébrale (comme une IRM ou une tomodensitométrie)
  • lésion de la couche protectrice qui entoure le cerveau (dure-mère)
  • un score sur l’échelle de coma de Glasgow inférieur à 13.

Pour diagnostiquer un TCC modéré à sévère, une blessure qui a entraîné une perturbation des fonctions cérébrales doit avoir une cause manifeste. Les causes courantes d’un TCC modéré ou sévère sont les suivantes :

  • le cerveau est frappé par un objet ou une force
  • la tête heurte une surface dure
  • le cerveau se déplace brusquement à l’intérieur du crâne sans impact direct (comme lors d’une entorse cervicale)
  • forces résultant d’un souffle ou d’une explosion.

La gravité de la blessure est souvent mesurée par l’échelle de coma de Glasgow (Glasgow Coma Scale - GCS), qui est remplie après la blessure, une fois que la personne a été traitée et qu’elle n’est plus sous sédatifs. Un score GCS de 8 ou moins signifie un TCC sévère, tandis qu’un score de 9 à 12 signifie généralement un TCC modéré.

Caractéristiques cliniques

Les TCC modérés à sévères peuvent provoquer un large éventail de symptômes, en fonction de la gravité de la lésion et des parties du cerveau touchées. Voici des symptômes courants :

  • Problèmes de mémoire et de réflexion : Les personnes souffrant d’un TCC modéré ou sévère ont souvent des difficultés à se souvenir, à se concentrer et à résoudre des problèmes. Elles peuvent également avoir plus de mal à apprendre de nouvelles informations et à assimiler les choses plus lentement.
  • Altérations de l’humeur et du comportement : Après un TCC modéré ou sévère, les personnes peuvent ressentir des sautes d’humeur, de l’irritabilité ou d’autres changements émotionnels et comportementaux. Ces changements peuvent affecter leurs relations et leur qualité de vie en général.
  • Problèmes physiques : Les personnes souffrant de lésions cérébrales modérées à sévères peuvent avoir des problèmes de coordination, de faiblesse musculaire ou d’équilibre à long terme. Elles peuvent également avoir des difficultés avec la motricité fine, comme écrire ou boutonner une chemise. Certaines peuvent subir des modifications permanentes de leurs sens, comme la vision, l’audition, le goût ou l’odorat. Des troubles durables de l’élocution ou du langage peuvent également persister. Ces troubles rendent difficile de trouver les mots, d’exprimer des idées ou de comprendre ce que les autres disent ou écrivent. De nombreuses personnes souffrant d’un TCC modéré ou sévère sont également confrontées à une fatigue persistante, à un manque d’énergie, à des problèmes de sommeil et à des douleurs chroniques. Les crises d’épilepsie peuvent également être un problème pour certaines personnes longtemps après la blessure.

Dans l’armée, les causes les plus courantes de TCC modérés à sévères comprennent, sans s’y limiter, les explosions, les chutes, les collisions de véhicules, les blessures causées par des fragments et d’autres types de traumatismes.

Les femmes ménopausées ont tendance à mieux se rétablir que les hommes après un TCC modéré ou sévère, ce qui n’est pas le cas des femmes en préménopause ou en périménopause (avant ou autour de la ménopause). Les femmes signalent également des symptômes plus graves après un traumatisme crânien que les hommes.

Les militaires qui travaillent dans l’armée ou au combat courent un risque plus élevé de souffrir d’un TCC car leur travail les expose souvent à des situations plus dangereuses, comme les détonations, les explosions et les chocs physiques. En revanche, les personnes occupant des fonctions administratives sont moins susceptibles d’être confrontées à ces types de dangers, et ont donc généralement moins de risques de subir un TCC.

Les TCC modérés à sévères sont moins fréquents que les TCC légers, mais ils entraînent généralement des problèmes plus graves à long terme. Environ 20 % des personnes souffrant d’un TCC modéré ou sévère retrouvent leur niveau de fonctionnement normal, mais il faut parfois deux ans ou plus pour que les symptômes s’atténuent.

Considérations liées à l’admissibilité

Dans la présente section

Section A: Causes et/ou aggravation

Aux fins de l’admissibilité à ACC, on considère que les facteurs suivants causent ou aggravent les TCC modérés à sévères, et peuvent être pris en considération avec les éléments de preuve pour aider à établir un lien avec le service. Les facteurs ont été déterminés sur la base d’une analyse de la littérature scientifique et médicale actualisée, ainsi que des meilleures pratiques médicales fondées sur des données probantes. Des facteurs autres que ceux énumérés peuvent être pris en considération, mais il est recommandé de consulter un conseiller en prestation d’invalidité ou un conseiller médical.

Les conditions énoncées ci-dessous sont fournies à titre indicatif. Dans chaque cas, la décision doit être prise en fonction du bien-fondé de la demande et des éléments de preuve fournis.

Facteurs

  1. Subissant un événement spécifié au moment de l’apparition clinique d’un TCC modéré à sévère.

    Au nombre des événements précisés se trouvent :

    • la tête frappée par un objet
    • la tête heurtant un objet
    • le cerveau subit un mouvement d’accélération ou de décélération sans traumatisme externe direct à la tête, comme dans le cas d’un coup de fouet cervical
    • un corps étranger pénétrant le cerveau
    • une explosion ou un souffle.
  2. Incapacité d’obtenir un traitement médical approprié pour le TCC modéré à sévère.

Section B : Affections dont il faut tenir compte dans la détermination de l’admissibilité/l’évaluation

La section B fournit une liste des affections diagnostiquées qu’ACC prend en considération dans la détermination de l’admissibilité et l’évaluation du TCC modéré à sévère.

  • Traumatisme crânien perforant
  • Traumatisme crânien ouvert
  • Mal de tête, y compris, mais sans s’y limiter :
    • Maux de tête post-traumatiques
    • Migraine post-traumatique

Remarque : Les symptômes physiques ou psychologiques d’un TCC modéré à sévère, comme les changements d’humeur, l’anxiété, les troubles du sommeil, la fatigue, les troubles de la cognition et les maux de tête, font partie de l’admissibilité et de l’évaluation du TCC. Lorsque les symptômes évoluent vers une affection diagnostiquée distincte, une admissibilité consécutive peut être envisagée.

Section C : Affections courantes pouvant découler, en totalité ou en partie, du traumatisme craniocérébral modéré à sévère et/ou de son traitement

La section C est une liste des conditions qui peuvent être causées ou aggravées par un TCC modéré à sévère ou son traitement. Les affections énumérées à la section C ne sont pas comprises dans la détermination de l’admissibilité et l’évaluation du TCC modéré à sévère. Une décision d’admissibilité en raison d’une affection consécutive peut être prise si le bien-fondé de la demande le justifie et si les éléments de preuve médicale montrent l’existence d’une relation consécutive.

Des conditions autres que celles énumérées à la section C peuvent être prises en considération; il est recommandé de consulter un consultant en prestation d’invalidité ou un conseiller médical.

  • Troubles du sommeil, y compris, mais sans s’y limiter :
    • trouble de l’insomnie
    • trouble de l’hypersomnolence
    • troubles respiratoires du sommeil :
      • apnée obstructive du sommeil
      • apnée centrale du sommeil
      • apnée du sommeil mixte.
  • Troubles neurocognitifs, y compris, mais sans s’y limiter :
    • trouble neurocognitif majeur/démence (avec preuve de l’apparition des symptômes dans les 15 ans suivant la blessure)
    • encéphalopathie traumatique chronique.
  • Troubles épileptiques/épilepsie post-traumatique
  • Vertige positionnel paroxystique bénin (VPPB)
  • Perte auditive neurosensorielle
  • Acouphènes
  • Troubles psychiatriques cliniquement significatifs (avec preuve de l’apparition des symptômes dans les cinq ans suivant la blessure).

    Remarque : Aux fins des critères d’admissibilité d’ACC, « cliniquement significatif » signifie que le trouble demande un traitement et une gestion clinique continus.

Directives et politiques connexes d’ACC :

Références compter à 31 mars 2025

Disponible en anglais seulement

Akhanemhe, R., Stevelink, S. A. M., Corbett, A., Ballard, C., Brooker, H., Creese, B., Aarsland, D., Hampshire, A., & Greenberg, N. (2024). Is lifetime traumatic brain injury a risk factor for mild cognitive impairment in veterans compared to non-veterans? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 15(1), 2291965. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2291965

Akin, F. W., Murnane, O. D., Hall, C. D., & Riska, K. M. (2017). Vestibular consequences of mild traumatic brain injury and blast exposure: A review. Brain Injury, 31(9), 1188–1194. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699052.2017.1288928

Akin, F. W., Murnane, O. D., Hall, C. D., Riska, K. M., & Sears, J. (2022). Vestibular and balance function in veterans with chronic dizziness associated with mild traumatic brain injury and blast exposure. Frontiers in Neurology, 13, 930389. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2022.930389

al-Dahhak, R., Khoury, R., Qazi, E., & Grossberg, G. T. (2018). Traumatic Brain Injury, Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy, and Alzheimer Disease. Clinics in Geriatric Medicine, 34(4), 617–635. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cger.2018.06.008

Aldag, M., Armstrong, R. C., Bandak, F., Bellgowan, P. S. F., Bentley, T., Biggerstaff, S., Caravelli, K., Cmarik, J., Crowder, A., DeGraba, T. J., Dittmer, T. A., Ellenbogen, R. G., Greene, C., Gupta, R. K., Hicks, R., Hoffman, S., Latta, R. C., Leggieri, M. J., Marion, D., … Zheng, J. (2017). The Biological Basis of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy following Blast Injury: A Literature Review. Journal of Neurotrauma, 34(S1), S26–S43. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2017.5218

Amin, A., Karimi, T., & Mahmoodkhani, M. (2023). Traumatic Brain Injury and the Risk of Parkinson’s Disease. https://doi.org/10.30491/hpr.2024.442484.1416

Andrew, A. S., Anderson, F. L., Lee, S. L., Von Herrmann, K. M., & Havrda, M. C. (2021). Lifestyle Factors and Parkinson’s Disease Risk in a Rural New England Case-Control Study. Parkinson’s Disease, 2021, 5541760. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5541760

Andriessen, T. M. J. C., Jacobs, B., & Vos, P. E. (2010). Clinical characteristics and pathophysiological mechanisms of focal and diffuse traumatic brain injury. Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, 14(10), Article 10. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1582-4934.2010.01164.x

Asken, B. M., Sullan, M. J., DeKosky, S. T., Jaffee, M. S., & Bauer, R. M. (2017). Research Gaps and Controversies in Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy: A Review. JAMA Neurology, 74(10), 1255–1262. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2017.2396

Australian Government Repatriation Medical Authority (Oct, 2018). Statement of principles concerning concussion (Balance of probabilities) (No. 93 of 2018).SOPs - Repatriation Medical Authority

Australian Government Repatriation Medical Authority (2018). Statement of principles concerning concussion (Reasonable hypothesis) (No. 92 of 2018). SOPs - Repatriation Medical Authority

Australian Government Repatriation Medical Authority (2018). Statement of principles concerning moderate to severe traumatic brain injury (Balance of probabilities) (No. 95 of 2018) SOPs - Repatriation Medical Authority

Australian Government Repatriation Medical Authority (2018). Statement of principles concerning moderate to severe traumatic brain injury (Reasonable hypothesis) (No. 94 of 2018) SOPs - Repatriation Medical Authority

Babakhanyan, I., Brickell, T. A., Bailie, J. M., Hungerford, L., Lippa, S. M., French, L. M., & Lange, R. T. (2024). Gender Disparities in Neurobehavioral Symptoms and the Role of Post-Traumatic Symptoms in US Service Members Following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. Journal of Neurotrauma. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2022.0462

Bai, L., Bai, G., Wang, S., Yang, X., Gan, S., Jia, X., Yin, B., & Yan, Z. (2020). Strategic white matter injury associated with long‐term information processing speed deficits in mild traumatic brain injury. Human Brain Mapping, 41(15), 4431–4441. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.25135

Bailie, J. M., Lippa, S. M., Hungerford, L., French, L. M., Brickell, T. A., & Lange, R. T. (2024). Cumulative Blast Exposure During a Military Career Negatively Impacts Recovery from Traumatic Brain Injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 41(5–6), 604–612. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2022.0192

Baker, A. J., Topolovec-Vranic, J., Michalak, A., Pollmann-Mudryj, M.-A., Ouchterlony, D., Cheung, B., & Tien, H. C. (2011). Controlled blast exposure during forced explosive entry training and mild traumatic brain injury. The Journal of Trauma, 71(5 Suppl 1), S472-477. https://doi.org/10.1097/TA.0b013e318232e7da

Barnes, D. E., Byers, A. L., Gardner, R. C., Seal, K. H., Boscardin, W. J., & Yaffe, K. (2018). Association of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury With and Without Loss of Consciousness With Dementia in US Military Veterans. JAMA Neurology, 75(9), 1055–1061. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.0815

Barshikar, S., & Bell, K. R. (2017). Sleep Disturbance After TBI. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports, 17(11), 87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11910-017-0792-4

Baskin, B. M., Logsdon, A. F., Janet Lee, S., Foresi, B. D., Peskind, E., Banks, W. A., Cook, D. G., & Schindler, A. G. (2023). Timing matters: Sex differences in inflammatory and behavioral outcomes following repetitive blast mild traumatic brain injury. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 110, 222–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2023.03.003

Batson, C., Froese, L., Gomez, A., Sainbhi, A. S., Stein, K. Y., Alizadeh, A., & Zeiler, F. A. (2021). Impact of Age and Biological Sex on Cerebrovascular Reactivity in Adult Moderate/Severe Traumatic Brain Injury: An Exploratory Analysis. Neurotrauma Reports, 2(1), 488–501. https://doi.org/10.1089/neur.2021.0039

Batson, C., Froese, L., Sekhon, M., Griesdale, D., Gomez, A., Thelin, E. P., Raj, R., Aries, M., Gallagher, C., Bernard, F., Kramer, A. H., & Zeiler, F. A. (2023). Impact of Chronological Age and Biological Sex on Cerebrovascular Reactivity in Moderate/Severe Traumatic Brain Injury: A CAnadian High-Resolution Traumatic Brain Injury (CAHR-TBI) Study. Journal of Neurotrauma, 40(11–12), 1098–1111. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2022.0293

Bazarian, J. J., Blyth, B., Mookerjee, S., He, H., & McDermott, M. P. (2010). Sex differences in outcome after mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 27(3), 527–539. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2009.1068

Bedard, M., Steffener, J., & Taler, V. (2020). Long-term cognitive impairment following single mild traumatic brain injury with loss of consciousness: Findings from the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 42(4), 344–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2020.1714552

Belanger, H. G., Bowling, F., & Yao, E. F. (2020). Low-Level Blast Exposure in Humans A Systematic Review of Acute and Chronic Effects. Journal of Special Operations Medicine: A Peer Reviewed Journal for SOF Medical Professionals, 20(1), 87–93. https://doi.org/10.55460/3AC6-AX9I

Belding, J. N., Bonkowski, J., & Englert, R. (2024). Traumatic brain injury and occupational risk of low-level blast exposure on adverse career outcomes: An examination of administrative and medical separations from Service (2005–2015). Frontiers in Neurology, 15, 1389757. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2024.1389757

Belding, J. N., Englert, R., Bonkowski, J., & Thomsen, C. J. (2021). Occupational Risk of Low-Level Blast Exposure and TBI-Related Medical Diagnoses: A Population-Based Epidemiological Investigation (2005–2015). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(24), 12925. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182412925

Belding, J. N., Englert, R. M., Fitzmaurice, S., Jackson, J. R., Koenig, H. G., Hunter, M. A., Thomsen, C. J., & da Silva, U. O. (2021). Potential Health and Performance Effects of High-Level and Low-Level Blast: A Scoping Review of Two Decades of Research. Frontiers in Neurology, 12, 628782. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2021.628782

Belding, J. N., Fitzmaurice, S., Englert, R. M., Koenig, H. G., Thomsen, C. J., & Olaghere da Silva, U. (2020). Self-Reported Concussion Symptomology during Deployment: Differences as a Function of Injury Mechanism and Low-Level Blast Exposure. Journal of Neurotrauma, 37(20), 2219–2226. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2020.6997

Belding, J. N., Fitzmaurice, S., Englert, R. M., Lee, I., Kowitz, B., Highfill-McRoy, R. M., Thomsen, C. J., & da Silva, U. (2020). Blast Exposure and Risk of Recurrent Occupational Overpressure Exposure Predict Deployment TBIs. Military Medicine, 185(5–6), e538–e544. https://doi.org/10.1093/milmed/usz289

Belding, J. N., Kolaja, C. A., Rull, R. P., & Trone, D. W. (2023). Single and repeated high-level blast, low-level blast, and new-onset self-reported health conditions in the U.S. Millennium Cohort Study: An exploratory investigation. Frontiers in Neurology, 14, 1110717. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2023.1110717

Bell, K., Greenwald, B., & Nakase-Richardson, R. (2022). Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Traumatic Brain Injury. Model Systems Knowledge Translation Center (MSKTC). https://msktc.org/sites/default/files/2022-11/OSA-and-TBI-508.pdf

Ben-Shlomo, Y., Darweesh, S., Llibre-Guerra, J., Marras, C., San Luciano, M., & Tanner, C. (2024). The epidemiology of Parkinson’s disease. Lancet (London, England), 403(10423), 283–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)01419-8

Betthauser, L. M., Brenner, L. A., Cole, W., Scher, A. I., Schwab, K., & Ivins, B. J. (2018). A Clinical Evidence-Based Approach to Examine the Effects of mTBI and PTSD Symptoms on ANAM Performance in Recently Deployed Active-Duty Soldiers: Results From the Warrior Strong Study. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 33(2), 91–100. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0000000000000376

Biegon, A. (2021). Considering Biological Sex in Traumatic Brain Injury. Frontiers in Neurology, 12, 576366. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2021.576366

Blaya, M. O., Raval, A. P., & Bramlett, H. M. (2022). Traumatic brain injury in women across lifespan. Neurobiology of Disease, 164, 105613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2022.105613

Boutté, A. M., Thangavelu, B., LaValle, C. R., Nemes, J., Gilsdorf, J., Shear, D. A., & Kamimori, G. H. (2019). Brain-related proteins as serum biomarkers of acute, subconcussive blast overpressure exposure: A cohort study of military personnel. PLOS ONE, 14(8), e0221036. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221036

Boutté, A. M., Thangavelu, B., Nemes, J., LaValle, C. R., Egnoto, M., Carr, W., & Kamimori, G. H. (2021). Neurotrauma Biomarker Levels and Adverse Symptoms Among Military and Law Enforcement Personnel Exposed to Occupational Overpressure Without Diagnosed Traumatic Brain Injury. JAMA Network Open, 4(4), e216445. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.6445

Boyle, E., Cancelliere, C., Hartvigsen, J., Carroll, L. J., Holm, L. W., & Cassidy, J. D. (2014). Systematic Review of Prognosis After Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in the Military: Results of the International Collaboration on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Prognosis. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 95(3), S230–S237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2013.08.297

Brahm, K. D., Wilgenburg, H. M., Kirby, J., Ingalla, S., Chang, C.-Y., & Goodrich, G. L. (2009). Visual Impairment and Dysfunction in Combat-Injured Servicemembers With Traumatic Brain Injury. Optometry and Vision Science, 86(7), 817–825. https://doi.org/10.1097/OPX.0b013e3181adff2d

Breeding, T., Martinez, B., Katz, J., Nasef, H., Santos, R. G., Zito, T., & Elkbuli, A. (2024). The Association Between Gender and Clinical Outcomes in Patients With Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. The Journal of Surgical Research, 295, 791–799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.2023.11.035

Brenner, L. A., Forster, J. E., Gradus, J. L., Hostetter, T. A., Hoffmire, C. A., Walsh, C. G., Larson, M. J., Stearns-Yoder, K. A., & Adams, R. S. (2023). Associations of Military-Related Traumatic Brain Injury With New-Onset Mental Health Conditions and Suicide Risk. JAMA Network Open, 6(7), e2326296. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.26296

Brett, B. L., Gardner, R. C., Godbout, J., Dams-O’Connor, K., & Keene, C. D. (2022). Traumatic Brain Injury and Risk of Neurodegenerative Disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 91(5), 498–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.05.025

Brickell, T. A., Lippa, S. M., French, L. M., Kennedy, J. E., Bailie, J. M., & Lange, R. T. (2017). Female Service Members and Symptom Reporting after Combat and Non-Combat-Related Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 34(2), 300–312. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2016.4403

Brown, N. J., Harris, M., Picton, B., Nguyen, A., Gendreau, J., Sahyouni, R., & Lin, H. W. (2024). Mild Traumatic Brain Injury and the Auditory System: An Overview of the Mechanisms, Clinical Presentations and Current Diagnostic Modalities. Journal of Neurological Surgery Part B: Skull Base, 85(S 01), P222.

Bryan, C. J., & Clemans, T. A. (2013). Repetitive Traumatic Brain Injury, Psychological Symptoms, and Suicide Risk in a Clinical Sample of Deployed Military Personnel. JAMA Psychiatry, 70(7), 686. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.1093

Bryden, D. W., Tilghman, J. I., & Hinds, S. R. (2019). Blast-Related Traumatic Brain Injury: Current Concepts and Research Considerations. Journal of Experimental Neuroscience, 13, 1179069519872213. https://doi.org/10.1177/1179069519872213

Burke, J. F., Stulc, J. L., Skolarus, L. E., Sears, E. D., Zahuranec, D. B., & Morgenstern, L. B. (2013). Traumatic brain injury may be an independent risk factor for stroke. Neurology, 81(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e318297eecf

Cancelliere, C., Verville, L., Stubbs, J. L., Yu, H., Hincapié, C. A., Cassidy, J. D., Wong, J. J., Shearer, H. M., Connell, G., Southerst, D., Howitt, S., Guist, B., & Silverberg, N.D. (2023). Post-Concussion Symptoms and Disability in Adults With Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Neurotrauma, 40(11–12), 1045–1059. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2022.0185

Capehart, B., & Bass, D. (2012). Review: Managing posttraumatic stress disorder in combat veterans with comorbid traumatic brain injury. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 49(5), Article 5. https://doi.org/10.1682/jrrd.2011.10.0185

Carlson, K. F., Nelson, D., Orazem, R. J., Nugent, S., Cifu, D. X., & Sayer, N. A. (2010). Psychiatric diagnoses among Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans screened for deployment-related traumatic brain injury. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(1), 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20483

Carr, W., Kelley, A. L., Toolin, C. F., & Weber, N. S. (2020). Association of MOS-Based Blast Exposure With Medical Outcomes. Frontiers in Neurology, 11, 619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.00619

Carr, W., Polejaeva, E., Grome, A., Crandall, B., LaValle, C., Eonta, S. E., & Young, L. A. (2015). Relation of repeated low-level blast exposure with symptomology similar to concussion. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 30(1), 47–55. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0000000000000064

Carr, W., Stone, J. R., Walilko, T., Young, L. A., Snook, T. L., Paggi, M. E., Tsao, J. W., Jankosky, C. J., Parish, R. V., & Ahlers, S. T. (2016). Repeated Low-Level Blast Exposure: A Descriptive Human Subjects Study. Military Medicine, 181(5 Suppl), 28–39. https://doi.org/10.7205/MILMED-D-15-00137

Castriotta, R. J., & Lai, J. M. (2001). Sleep disorders associated with traumatic brain injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 82(10), 1403–1406. https://doi.org/10.1053/apmr.2001.26081

Castriotta, R. J., & Murthy, J. N. (2011). Sleep disorders in patients with traumatic brain injury: A review. CNS Drugs, 25(3), 175–185. https://doi.org/10.2165/11584870-000000000-00000

Cernak, I., & Noble-Haeusslein, L. J. (2010). Traumatic Brain Injury: An Overview of Pathobiology with Emphasis on Military Populations. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism, 30(2), 255–266. https://doi.org/10.1038/jcbfm.2009.203

Champagne, A. A., Coverdale, N. S., Skinner, C., Schwarz, B. A., Glikstein, R., Melkus, G., ... & Cook, D. J. (2024). Longitudinal analysis highlights structural changes in grey-and white-matter within military personnel exposed to blast. Brain Injury, 1-9.

Chanti-Ketterl, M., Pieper, C. F., Yaffe, K., & Plassman, B. L. (2023). Associations Between Traumatic Brain Injury and Cognitive Decline Among Older Male Veterans: A Twin Study. Neurology, 101(18), e1761–e1770. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000207819

Chase, A. (2015). Traumatic brain injury increases the risk of Parkinson disease. Nature Reviews Neurology, 11(4), 184–184. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2015.39

Chen, Y.-H., Kang, J.-H., & Lin, H.-C. (2011). Patients with traumatic brain injury: Population-based study suggests increased risk of stroke. Stroke, 42(10), Article 10. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.111.620112

Churchill, N. W., Hutchison, M. G., Graham, S. J., & Schweizer, T. A. (2021). Sex differences in acute and long‐term brain recovery after concussion. Human Brain Mapping, 42(18), 5814–5826. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.25591

Cifu, D. X. (2022). Clinical research findings from the long-term impact of military-relevant brain injury consortium-Chronic Effects of Neurotrauma Consortium (LIMBIC-CENC) 2013-2021. Brain Injury, 36(5), 587–597. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699052.2022.2033843

Clausen, A. N., Meyers, K. R., Stamey, H. M., & Spilman, S. K. (2024). Traumatic Brain Injury, Psychological Trauma Exposure, and Anxious and Depressive Symptoms in a Clinical Population. Journal of Trauma Nursing: The Official Journal of the Society of Trauma Nurses, 31(2), 82–89. https://doi.org/10.1097/JTN.0000000000000777

Cogan, A. M., McCaughey, V. K., & Scholten, J. (2020). Gender Differences in Outcomes after Traumatic Brain Injury among Service Members and Veterans. PM & R: The Journal of Injury, Function, and Rehabilitation, 12(3), 301–314. https://doi.org/10.1002/pmrj.12237

Collen, J., Orr, N., Lettieri, C. J., Carter, K., & Holley, A. B. (2012). Sleep disturbances among soldiers with combat-related traumatic brain injury. Chest, 142(3), Article 3. https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.11-1603

Collins, C. L., Fletcher, E. N., Fields, S. K., Kluchurosky, L., Rohrkemper, M. K., Comstock, R. D., & Cantu, R. C. (2014). Neck strength: A protective factor reducing risk for concussion in high school sports. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 35(5), 309–319. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-014-0355-2

Combs, H. L., Berry, D. T. R., Pape, T., Babcock-Parziale, J., Smith, B., Schleenbaker, R., Shandera-Ochsner, A., Harp, J. P., & High, W. M. (2015). The Effects of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, and Combined Mild Traumatic Brain Injury/Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder on Returning Veterans. Journal of Neurotrauma, 32(13), Article 13. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2014.3585

Committee on the Review of the Department of Veterans Affairs Examinations for Traumatic Brain Injury, Board on Health Care Services, Health and Medicine Division, & National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2019). Evaluation of the Disability Determination Process for Traumatic Brain Injury in Veterans (p. 25317). National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/25317

Coppel, D., Barber, J., Temkin, N. R., & Mac Donald, C. L. (2024). Combat Deployed Service Members by Blast TBI and Service Separation Status 5-years Post-deployment: Comparison of Cognitive, Neurobehavioral, and Psychological Profiles of Those Who Left vs. Those Still Serving. Military Medicine, 189(3–4), e795–e801. https://doi.org/10.1093/milmed/usad378

Davis, D. P., Douglas, D. J., Smith, W., Sise, M. J., Vilke, G. M., Holbrook, T. L., Kennedy, F., Eastman, A. B., Velky, T., & Hoyt, D. B. (2006). Traumatic brain injury outcomes in pre- and post- menopausal females versus age-matched males. Journal of Neurotrauma, 23(2), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2006.23.140

de Souza, N. L., Bogner, J., Corrigan, J. D., Rabinowitz, A. R., Walker, W. C., Kumar, R. G., & Dams-O’Connor, K. (2024). The Effects of Repetitive Head Impact Exposure on Mental Health Symptoms Following Traumatic Brain Injury. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0000000000000936

DeGraba, T. J., Williams, K., Koffman, R., Bell, J. L., Pettit, W., Kelly, J. P., Dittmer, T. A., Nussbaum, G., Grammer, G., Bleiberg, J., French, L. M., & Pickett, T. C. (2020). Efficacy of an Interdisciplinary Intensive Outpatient Program in Treating Combat-Related Traumatic Brain Injury and Psychological Health Conditions. Frontiers in Neurology, 11, 580182. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.580182

Delic, V., Beck, K. D., Pang, K. C. H., & Citron, B. A. (2020). Biological links between traumatic brain injury and Parkinson’s disease. Acta Neuropathologica Communications, 8(1), 45. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40478-020-00924-7

Deliz, J. R., Tanner, C. M., & Gonzalez-Latapi, P. (2024). Epidemiology of Parkinson’s Disease: An Update. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports, 24(6), 163–179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11910-024-01339-w

Dell, K. (2020). Examining Headache and Postural Control Variability During Explosive Breacher Training. The Graduate School of Pensilvania State University.

DeMario, P., Waddell, K., Ali, A., Dass, R., Grewal, E., Wu, N., & Wilson, M. (2024, July 2). Rapid evidence profile #75: Examining the association between the role of military breacher and sniper and the effects of mild traumatic brain injuries. Hamilton: McMaster Health Forum. https://www.mcmasterforum.org/about-us/products

Dennis, E. L., Rowland, J. A., Esopenko, C., Tustison, N. J., Newsome, M. R., Hovenden, E. S., Avants, B. B., Gill, J., Hinds, S. R., Kenney, K., Lindsey, H. M., Martindale, S. L., Pugh, M. J., Scheibel, R. S., Shahim, P.-P., Shih, R., Stone, J. R., Troyanskaya, M., Walker, W. C., … Wilde, E. A. (2024). Brain volume changes following blast-related mild TBI in service members and veterans: A LIMBIC-CENC study. https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.02.27.24303460

Dennis, E. L., Taylor, B. A., Newsome, M. R., Troyanskaya, M., Abildskov, T. J., Betts, A. M., Bigler, E. D., Cole, J., Davenport, N., Duncan, T., Gill, J., Guedes, V., Hinds, S. R., Hovenden, E. S., Kenney, K., Pugh, M. J., Scheibel, R. S., Shahim, P.-P., Shih, R., … Wilde, E. A. (2022). Advanced brain age in deployment-related traumatic brain injury: A LIMBIC-CENC neuroimaging study. Brain Injury, 36(5), 662–672. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699052.2022.2033844

DePalma, R. G. (2015). Combat TBI: History, Epidemiology, and Injury Modes. In F. H. Kobeissy (Ed.), Brain Neurotrauma: Molecular, Neuropsychological, and Rehabilitation Aspects. CRC Press/Taylor & Francis. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK299230/

DePalma, R. G., & Hoffman, S. W. (2018). Combat blast related traumatic brain injury (TBI): Decade of recognition; promise of progress. Behavioural Brain Research, 340, 102–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2016.08.036

Department of Veterans Affairs, & Department of Defense. (2016). VA/DoD clinical practice guideline for management of concussion/mild traumatic brain injury. http://www.healthquality.va.gov/management_of_concussion_mtbi.asp

Déry, J., Ouellet, B., de Guise, É., Bussières, È.-L., & Lamontagne, M.-E. (2023). Prognostic factors for persistent symptoms in adults with mild traumatic brain injury: An overview of systematic reviews. Systematic Reviews, 12(1), 127. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-023-02284-4

Devoto, C., Arcurio, L., Fetta, J., Ley, M., Rodney, T., Kanefsky, R., & Gill, J. (2017). Inflammation Relates to Chronic Behavioral and Neurological Symptoms in Military Personnel with Traumatic Brain Injuries. Cell Transplantation, 26(7), 1169–1177. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963689717714098

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